AD 1250-1500 Late medieval

Frederick II died in AD 1250 leading to a confused period, the Interregnum, which ended in 1273 with the election of Rudolf I of Habsburg as German emperor. Among the emperors who followed, the most notable were from the Luxemburg dynasty, until Frederick III (reigned 1440-93) brought the crown to the Habsburgs.

The emperor’s power was limited: he was elected by seven electoral states (established by the Golden Bull, 1356), and individual states had a great deal of autonomy. In spite of Germany’s political fragmentation, this was an age of combination. The Hanseatic League of north German towns dominated North Sea and Baltic trade in the 14th century. Towns of the Swabian League (1376-8) banded together to resist their overlords. The Black Death (bubonic plague) swept across Europe in 1348-50, millions died, famine and social unrest followed. But by the 15th century population recovered and the empire prospered economically and culturally.

In Scandinavia, Denmark and Sweden were briefly united with Norway by the Union of Kalmar under Margaret of Norway (1353-1412). In the east, the vast, united kingdom of Poland-Lithuania was established under the Jagiellon dynasty, and in mid-15th century Russia the outlines of the future tsarist dominion began to emerge.