AD 800-1250 Medieval

In the 9th century AD much of Europe was ruled by Charlemagne’s descendants, while Byzantium dominated the east. Between the 9th and 11th centuries the political structure of Europe came under intense pressure from several directions, especially Scandinavian Vikings attacking by sea in the north-west and the Magyars, who invaded from central Asia and brought massive disruption to the south-east.

These pressures transformed Europe’s political and social structures which fragmented and power became focussed on local lords and church leaders. Gradually the various threats receded and new kingdoms emerged. By the 12th century Europe’s population was again rising and trade was expanding, led by cities in the Low Countries and north Italy. The reform of religious institutions, foundation of universities and a rediscovery of classical learning produced an intellectual and artistic renaissance.

The popes increasingly claimed the leadership of Europe and engaged in a long contest with the Holy Roman emperors, whose power was based in Germany. One result of the growth of papal power, of European wealth and population growth and better political organisation, was the Crusades. These aggressively spread Christian power, successfully in Spain and north-eastern Europe but less so in the Holy Land, their original objective. Friction with Byzantium also grew, eastern and western Christianity separated and the empire was severely damaged by the Fourth Crusade in 1204.