Neanderthals first evolved in Europe and the Near East over 400,000 years ago. Although their remains are found in abundance everywhere apart from northernmost Europe, they are very rare in Britain. Only a few teeth and bone fragments from early Neanderthals have been found, at Pontnewydd Cave in Clwyd.

The typical Neanderthal body shape of short, stocky individuals with sloping foreheads and strong brow-ridges has given rise to the myth that they were lumbering and slow-witted. The evidence, particularly for later Neanderthals, suggests otherwise. The stone tools they made were an advance on those made previously. Occasionally, traces of natural glue have survived on the tools, suggesting that they were hafted (attached to handles) to make them more efficient. Study of bone food debris in France and Germany shows that hunting was more organised, with the targeting of particular herds such as horse or bison. Fire also seems to have been used on a more regular basis. Evidence for intentional burial of the dead is less clear, although bodies were often disposed of in caves. However, there is no clear evidence for art or music.

Neanderthals were a highly successful species that were able to endure both harsh and moderate climates over several hundred thousand years. They became largely extinct in Europe by 35,000 years ago, and were replaced by modern humans.