During much of this period England was a violent place. Success in warfare was vital for winning and retaining power, and the small kingdoms of the 5th-8th centuries AD were really more like tribes ruled by warrior-kings. There were no permanent professional armies. Instead, a ruler relied on the support of loyal nobles whom he rewarded with treasure and hospitality. These warriors fought because they had pledged to support their leader rather than for an idea of nationhood or ‘right’. By the mid-9th century, Viking attacks led Alfred, king of Wessex, to create a more organised army and navy. Alfred’s army was still not professional. Instead he used a system of fortified towns (burhs) defended by an army organised on a rota. This allowed men who were not on duty to continue looking after their farms and businesses.

Most ordinary fighters used spears, which they also used for hunting. Swords were precious possessions which could be handed down through generations. A few aristocratic warriors would have worn chain mail tunics but most fighters would have protected themselves with a circular shield held in one hand. This would have been covered in leather for greater strength, and had an iron boss in the centre of the front, which protected the user’s hand holding the grip behind it.