AD 600-1200

After the disappearance of the Gupta dynasty in the 6th century AD, South Asia became politically divided. A succession of dynasties vied for control, with no single power enjoying supremacy. Despite shifting boundaries and in-fighting, the ruling elite frequently intermarried and shared a common political and religious culture.

In the 7th century, King Harsha (reigned about 606-647) controlled the north from Kannauj (ancient Kanyākubja). The Deccan was ruled by the Cālukyas from Badāmī, and the Pallavas dominated the south from Kānchī. From the late 8th century, new dynasties emerged: the Pratīhāras and Pālas in the north, the Rāstrakūtas in the Deccan and the Colas in the south. Numerous minor rulers occupied land adjacent to or inside the main territories of these dynasties, making for a complex and highly decentralised political structure.

In 711 Muhammad ibn al-Qāsim conquered Sind for the Umayyad caliphate. Islamic states survived in Sind and Multān and Islamic traders established themselves along the west coast of India. In 1010 Mahmūd, ruler of the Ghaznavid Empire, conquered lands in the north and brought lasting cultural, religious and political change. After two centuries of interaction marked by shifting alliances, changing boundaries and constant warfare, an Indo-Islamic Sultanate was established in Delhi at the close of the 12th century.