AD 1280-1368 Yuan dynasty

In the 12th century AD, the Mongol peoples, led by Genghis Khan, swept out of the steppes of Central Asia, conquering territories from Korea in the east to the Black Sea in the west. In 1279, Khubilai Khan, grandson of Genghis, completed the conquest of China when he defeated the Southern Song and declared himself emperor of the Yuan dynasty, which was to rule China until 1368.

A Yuan capital city was constructed at Shangdu in Inner Mongolia (the ‘Xanadu’ of Coleridge’s poem Kubla Khan); later, a winter capital was established at Dadu (modern-day Beijing). The Silk Route was opened up again and foreign merchants including, supposedly, the Venetian Marco Polo, were encouraged to trade and settle. Many Muslims came, bringing with them scientific knowledge of astronomy and map-making. The Yuan administration was bilingual in Chinese and Mongolian, and religious freedom was allowed, but the Mongols appointed foreign officials and maintained their own laws and military values, alienating many Chinese scholars.

In the first half of the 14th century, peasant risings were caused by the Mongols’ neglect of agriculture and by a series of harsh winters and severe flooding. This, combined with a decline in Mongol military power, and fighting among contenders to the throne, brought down the dynasty. In AD 1368, the Mongols were ousted from power and returned to the steppes.